International Higher Education in Thailand and Philippines: Analysis of Changing Context and Social Impacts

Gwyn Peredur Evans

Authors

Gwyn Peredur Evans Faculty of Social Administration, Thammasat University

Keywords:

International student mobility, Internationalization of Higher Education, Commercialisation of Education, Thailand, Philippines

Abstract

This research aims to examine how globalisation is shaping the internationalisation of higher education (IHE) in Thailand and the Philippines, with a focus on the commercialisation of International Student Mobility (ISM). Specifically, this study endeavours to understand changing trends and narratives of ISM in the context of Thailand and the Philippines, identify key trends and challenges of ISM and their evolving impact on the social environment as perceived by institutions, and provide recommendations for the higher education sector to address ISM threats and leverage the changing IHE context. The study employs the lenses of globalisation and neoliberalism in its analysis of the rise and ramifications of commercialisation in the Thai and Philippine international education sector. This study adopts a qualitative research approach, focusing on publicly funded universities in Thailand and in the Philippines that have been running ISM programmes for the last ten to twenty years and are situated in central metropolitan cities. Findings reveal that the increased commercialisation at institutions has resulted in changing trends, narratives, and challenges around quality, access, and management of ISM, as well as its impact on students, the academic community, and, more broadly, the public.

References

Acumen. (2024). Acumen’s Key Trends in Southeast Asia. https://issuu.com/sannam_s4/docs/key_trends_southeast_asia_2024?fr=xKAE9_zU1NQ

Aggarwal, R., & Wu, Y. (2023). Innovative Study Abroad and Student Intercultural Skills. Journal of Teaching in International Business, 34(1-2), 1-6.

Alex, C. (2021). Internationalization of higher education in Southeast Asia: A systematic literature review. Higher Education Governance & Policy, 2(2), 110-125.

Altbach, P. (2002). Knowledge and education as international commodities. Internationalisation of Higher Education, 28(2-5).

Altbach, P. (2002). Knowledge and Education as International Commodities: The Collapse of the Common Good. Internationalisation of Higher Education, (28). https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/ihe/article/view/6657

Altbach, P., & Knight, J. (2007). The internationalization of higher education: Motivations and realities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 11(3-4), 290-305. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1028315307303542

ApplyBoard. (2024). What Were the Top Destinations for International Students in 2023? https://www.applyboard.com/applyinsights-article/what-were-the-top-destinations-for-international-students-in-2023

Archer, L., Hutchings, M. & Ross A. (2003). Higher Education and Social Class. London and New York, Routledge Falmer. https://journals.openedition.org/belgeo/24193

ASEAN Secretariat. (2020). Study on Enhancing Intra-ASEAN University Student Mobility. https://connectivity.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Study-on-Enhancing-Intra-ASEAN-University-Student-Mobility_Final.pdf

Aziz, M. & Abdullah, D. (2013). Shaping the Internationalisation of Higher Education through Student Mobility: Focus on Malaysia. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291137149_Shaping_the_Internationalisation_of_Higher_Education_through_Student_

Mobility_Focus_on_Malaysia

Babatunde, E. & Myklebust, J. (2023). International students: Are countries throwing away the gold? University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20230113141301105

Barnett, R. (2008). Translated by İlhan Tekeli. University Publications: p. 100-117.

Bhandari, R. & Blumenthal, P. (eds). (2011). International students and global mobility in higher education: National trends and new directions. Palgrave Macmillan.

Bok, D. (2007). Higher Education in America. US: United States of America,102-104.

Bombita, M. & Dicolen, E. (2020). Status, Prospects, and Challenges of International Mobility of Students in ASEAN: The Philippine Experience. ASEAN Journal of Open Distance Learning, (12)1. https://ajodl.oum.edu.my/document/Previous/Volume12.N0.1_2020/02.

Status,%20Prospects%20&%20Challenges_FINAL.pdf

Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.

British Council. (2024). 2020-2023 Impact Report: Expanding Horizons through Cultural Relations, Education and English Proficiency. https://www.britishcouncil.ph/programmes/education/reports-publications

Cabegin, E. (2015). International Tertiary Student Mobility in the ASEAN: Implications on the Labour Market. Philippine Journal of Labour and Industrial Relations, (33).

Canadian Bureau for International Education. (2024). Market Report Thailand - Study Abroad Market. https://www.educationfair.net/market-reports/asia/thailand/

Cantwell, B. (2015). Are International Students Cash Cows? Examining the Relationship Between New International Undergraduate Enrollments and Institutional Revenue at Public Colleges and Universities in the US. Journal of International Students, 5(4). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1066279.pdf

Cao, X. (1996). Debating brain-drain in the context of globalization. Compare, 26(3), 269-284.

Chan, S. J. (2012). Shifting patterns of student mobility in Asia. Higher Education Policy, 25(2). 207-224. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2012.3

Chemsripong, S. (2019). The Determinants of International Student Movement into Thailand: Push and Pull Factors. Theoretical Economics Letters, (9), 2785-2799. https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=96858

DeVoretz, D. (2006). The education, immigration and emigration of Canada’s highly skilled workers in the 21st century. Washington DC: Georgetown’s Institute for the Study of International Migration.

Ehrenberg, R. (2012). American higher education in transition. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(1), 193-216.

Erudera News. (2023). International Students Contributed $25.5 Billion to Australian Economy in 2022. https://erudera.com/news/international-students-contributed-255-billion-to-australian-economy-in-2022/

Evans, P. (2024). Competition versus Cooperation: International Programmes in Thailand’s Higher Education. [Doctoral Dissertation], Chulalongkorn University.

Gao, M. (2021). How Harmful is the Commercialisation of Higher Education for the Academic and Social Environment? Journal of Higher Education Research, 2(6). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357589039_How_Harmful_Is_the_Commercialization_of_Higher_Education_for_the_Academic_and_Social_Environment

Hawawini, G. (2016). The internationalization of higher education and business schools [electronic resource]: A critical review (Springer Briefs in business). Springer.

Hou, A., Hill, C., Chen, K., Tsai, S., & Chen, V. (2017). A Comparative Study of Student Mobility Programs in SEAMEO RIHED, UMAP, and Campus Asia: Regulation, Challenges, and Impacts on Higher Education Regionalization. Higher Education Evaluation and Development, 11(1). https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/HEED-08-2017-003/full/html

ICEF Monitor. (2023). Outward mobility trends for five key sending markets in Asia. https://monitor.icef.com/2023/03/outbound-mobility-trends-for-five-key-sending-markets-in-asia/

Ilieva, J., Postrado, L., & Peak, M. (2021). Capacity Building and Institutional Development through Transnational Higher Education in the Philippines. Importing Transnational Education: Capacity, Sustainability and Student Experience from the Host Country Perspective.Palgrave Macmillan, 99-120. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347754793_Capacity_Building_and_Institutional_Development_Through_Transnational_Education_in_the_Philippines

Jessop, B., Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (2008). Education and the knowledge-based economy in Europe (Vol. 24). Brill.

Knight, J. (1999). A time of turbulence and transformation for internationalization [Research Monograph, No. 14]. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Bureau for International Education.

Knight, J. (2003). Updated internationalization definition. International Higher Education, 33, 2-3.

Knight, J. (2016). Transnational Education Remodeled: Toward a Common TNE Framework and Definitions. Journal of Studies on International Education, 20(1), 34-47.

Knight, J. (2012). Student Mobility and Internationalization: Trends and Tribulations. Research in Comparative and International Education, 7(1).

Levy, D. (2010). East Asian Private Higher Education: Reality and Policy. World Bank.

Li, X., Chen, L., & Liu, Y. (2025). An exploratory study of ASEAN students’ engagement dynamics with local communities in China, Japan, and South Korea. Higher Education, 1-22.

Miichi, K., & Ashida, A. (2022). Intra-ASEAN Student Mobility and the Development of ASEAN Identity: A Case Study of Vietnamese Students in Indonesia.

Rizvi, F. (2005). International Education and the Production of Cosmopolitan Identities. In Transnational seminar series.

Santiago, L. (1991). The Beginning of Higher Education in the Philippines (1601-1772). Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 19, 135-145.

Seneviratne, K. (2018). International programmes proliferate at universities. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20181116134327618

Siemers, O. (2016). Skills for Here or Take Away? Outcomes of Academic Mobility for Expatriate Researchers. International Journal of Mobility, 4(1), 149-170.

Snodin, N. (2019). Mobility Experiences of International Students in Thai Higher Education. International Journal of Educational Management, 33(7), 1653-1669. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335935645_Mobility_experiences_of_international_

students_in_Thai_higher_education

Snow, N. (2021). Student Mobility and Its Relevance to International Relations Theory.E-International Relations, 1-8.

Study Portal. (2024). Study in the Philippines. https://www.bachelorsportal.com/countries/130/philippines.html

Suter, B. & Jandl, M. (2006). Comparative study on policies towards foreign graduates - study on admission and retention policies towards foreign students in ındustrialised countries. International Centre of Migration Policy Development.

Teichler, U. (2017). Internationalisation Trends in Higher Education and the Changing Role of International Student Mobility. Journal of international Mobility, (4), 177-216.

UNESCO. (2013). International Students Mobility: Philippines. The International Mobility of Students in Asia and the Pacific. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000226219

Universities UK. (2022). International students boost UK economy by £41.9 billion. https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/latest/news/international-students-boost-uk-economy

Universities UK. (2023). A national push for TNE: the Philippine experience. https://www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/universities-uk-international/insights-and-publications/uuki-blog/national-pushtne-philippine-experience

Wu, C., & Wilkes, R. (2017). International Students’ Post-Graduation Migration Plans and The Search for Home. Geoforum, 80, 123-132.

Zayim-Kurtay, M., Kaya-Kasikci, S., Kondakci, Y., Bulut-Sahin, B., Kéri, A., Levatino, A., & Qushem, U. B. (2025). Im/mobility in a disruptive time: the impact of Covid-19 on the size and directionalflow of international student mobility. Comparative Migration Studies, 13(1), 15.